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Ethiopia,  «ee thee OH pee uh», is a country in northeastern Africa. Much of Ethiopia consists of rugged mountains and a high plateau. Addis Ababa is Ethiopia's capital and largest city.

The name Ethiopia comes from a Greek word meaning burned faces. The ancient Greeks used the word to mean lands south of Egypt—including modern Ethiopia—where people had darker skins than the Greeks or most Egyptians. Ethiopia was formerly called Abyssinia, a term derived from Habashat, the name given the people of northern Ethiopia by neighbors in the Red Sea region.

Ethiopia is one of the oldest nations. According to tradition, the first emperor of Ethiopia, Menelik I, was the son of the Biblical Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. Many later Ethiopian rulers claimed descent from Solomon and Sheba.

Droughts have occurred in Ethiopia from time to time. In the 1970's and 1980's, the country experienced several severe droughts. These droughts, combined with political unrest, led to the deaths of many people.

Government

National government of Ethiopia consists of a two-house legislature, a prime minister, and a president. The legislature is called the Federal Parliamentary Assembly. It consists of the Council of the Federation and the Council of People's Representatives. The 118 members of the Council of the Federation are elected by Ethiopia's states. The people elect the 548 members of the Council of People's Representatives. The Council of People's Representatives chooses the prime minister, who heads the government. Both houses of the Federal Parliamentary Assembly choose the president, who serves a mainly ceremonial role.

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Local government. Ethiopia is divided into nine states and two cities, Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. The states were created on the basis of the ethnic groups living in them. Each state has its own parliamentary assembly chosen through local elections.

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Courts. The Supreme Court is Ethiopia's highest court. It hears appeals from the High Court, the second highest court. Local peasants' and urban dwellers' associations act as courts for minor civil and criminal cases.

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Armed forces. Ethiopia has an army and an air force. Members of the armed forces must be at least 18 years of age.

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People

Ancestry and languages. The government classifies Ethiopians into groups based on the main language they speak. About 80 languages are spoken in Ethiopia. The Oromo make up the largest ethnic and language group. The Oromo speak a Cushitic language called Oromifa or Oromo. They live in the central and southern parts of the country. The Amhara and Tigrayan peoples of the northern plateau speak Amharic—the nation's official language—and Tigrinya, respectively. These Semitic languages belong to the Afro-Asian language family, which also includes Arabic and Hebrew. Other important ethnic and language groups in Ethiopia include the Somali, who live in the southeast, and the Afar, who live in the east and northeast. A number of smaller groups live in the southwest and along the border with Sudan. Many Ethiopians speak more than one language, including English and other Ethiopian and European languages.

Ge'ez (also called Ethiopic) is an ancient Ethiopian language. In the past, all Ethiopian Bibles were written in it. Ge'ez is still used in ceremonies of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

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Way of life. Most Ethiopians live in rural areas as either farmers or livestock herders. Many farmers use an ancient wooden plow called a maresha and a pair of oxen to plow their fields. They grow crops for sale, such as coffee, and various cereal crops, such as barley, corn, wheat, and a tiny local grain called teff. Livestock herders raise camels, cattle, goats, and sheep, and travel from place to place to find food for their animals. Ethiopians in cities and towns work for the government, hold jobs in various businesses and industries, or run shops.

Poverty in Ethiopia is widespread. Each year, many Ethiopian men and women move to towns and cities to seek jobs and a better life. Medical care, electric power, schools, and clean water supplies are part of what attracts rural Ethiopians to cities.

Styles of houses vary widely in Ethiopia. Many houses in rural areas are round with walls constructed of wooden poles and mud plaster. These houses have roofs of thatch or corrugated iron. In Tigray areas, houses often are rectangular and made of stone. Addis Ababa and other cities have tall office buildings, multistory apartment houses, large villas, and mixed neighborhoods of stone, brick, mud, and cement houses.

In rural areas, many men and women wear a one-piece white cotton cloth called a shamma. Men wear a shamma over a cotton shirt, and women wear it over a cotton dress. In towns and cities, many people wear clothing similar to that worn in Europe and North America. In southern Ethiopia, some people wear traditional clothing made of leather or a colorful cloth used as a shawl and a waist wrap.

Ethiopians eat a wide variety of foods based on a diet of injera. This large flat bread is made of fermented flour from teff or other grains. In addition, Ethiopians eat barley, corn, or wheat, which are roasted or boiled. Ethiopians in some areas eat a bread made from the root of ensete, a plant that resembles a banana tree. Popular beverages include beer, coffee, tea, and thin yogurt.

Favorite sports in Ethiopia include soccer, volleyball, and genna, a game similar to field hockey. Ethiopians also enjoy playing card games, and a local kind of chess and other board games. Holidays include special celebrations from both the Christian and the Islamic faiths.

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Religion. Most Ethiopians are either Christians or Muslims. About 40 percent of the people belong to the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, a Christian faith related to Coptic, Greek, and Russian Orthodox churches. A small percentage in the south and west practice local religions.

Until the 1980's, a small group of Jewish Ethiopians called the Falashas or Beta Israel lived in the northeast highlands and practiced an old form of Judaism. In the mid-1980's and in 1991, these people left Ethiopia, taking up citizenship in the Jewish state of Israel. However, a number of Jews known as Falash Mura remained in Ethiopia. These people are descendants of Jews who had converted to Christianity, many to avoid persecution. Beginning in the late 1990's, the government of Israel began to allow some Falash Mura to immigrate to Israel.

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Education. Ethiopian children are not required by law to attend school. About 45 percent of the children attend elementary school, but less than 15 percent attend high school. The main national university is Addis Ababa University, which has several branches.

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The arts. Much of the country's art is related to the Ethiopian Orthodox religion. In the past, many artists painted church walls with Biblical scenes and pictures of saints. Artists also illustrated religious manuscripts with elaborate decorations. Writers created religious poetry and other sacred works in the Ge'ez language.

Since the early 1900's, Ethiopian writers have produced novels, plays, and poetry in Amharic and other modern Ethiopian languages. Modern artists have created murals, paintings, and stained-glass windows that incorporate Western styles.

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Land and climate

Ethiopia has an area of about 435,000 square miles (1,127,000 square kilometers). The Ethiopian Plateau covers much of the western and central parts of the country. Lowlands surround the plateau.

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The Ethiopian Plateau spreads out over about two-thirds of the country. It lies between 6,000 and 10,000 feet (1,800 and 3,000 meters) above sea level. Most of Ethiopia's people live on the plateau, which has the country's best agricultural land. Most of the plateau receives more than 40 inches (102 centimeters) of rain annually. Average temperatures on the plateau range from about 72 °F (22 °C) in areas below 8,000 feet (2,400 meters) to less than 60 °F (16 °C) at higher altitudes.

The Great Rift Valley, which runs north and south through eastern Africa, divides the plateau into two large sections. The sections are further divided by deep, spectacular river gorges and high mountain ranges. Ethiopia's highest mountain, Ras Dashen, rises 15,158 feet (4,620 meters) above sea level on the plateau.

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The lowlands. The Ethiopian Plateau slopes downward in all directions toward lowland regions. Most of the lowland areas have an average temperature of about 80 °F (27 °C) and receive less than 20 inches (51 centimeters) of rain a year. The Denakil Depression in northeastern Ethiopia, which lies below sea level, is one of the hottest places in the world. Temperatures in the Denakil Depression sometimes rise above 120 °F (49 °C). The lowlands are thinly populated because of the hot, dry climate and because the soil is poor for farming.

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Rivers and lakes. Ethiopia's chief rivers include the Awash, Baro, Blue Nile (called Abay in Ethiopia), Genale, Omo, and Wabe Shebele. Lake Tana, the country's largest lake, lies in the northwest. A series of lakes extends through southern Ethiopia along the Great Rift Valley. The lakes include Abaya and Ziway.

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Animal life and vegetation. A wide variety of animals live in Ethiopia. Some of these animals live nowhere else. They include an antelope called the walia ibex and the Simien fox, also known as the Simien jackal or Ethiopian wolf. Coffee originated in the forests of southwest Ethiopia. Teff and several other types of crops also had their origins in the country. Forests cover part of the southwest. The most common tree in Ethiopia is the eucalyptus, which was imported from Australia in the 1890's.

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Economy

Ethiopia has a developing economy. Agriculture is the chief economic activity. But many farmers struggle just to raise enough food for their families. Droughts occur from time to time and sometimes result in famine. Agriculture employs about 85 percent of the country's workers. About 5 percent of the workers have jobs in manufacturing, and about 10 percent in service industries, such as banking, government, insurance, and tourism. Mining and fishing are minor economic activities.

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Agriculture. Many Ethiopian farmers produce goods chiefly for their own use. Grain crops include wheat, corn, sorghum, and teff. Many farmers in the southwest grow coffee plants. Other crops grown for sale include khat, oilseeds, and sugar cane. The leaves of khat (also spelled kat or qat) produce a mild intoxication or feeling of well-being when chewed. Most farmers also raise cattle, goats, sheep, and chickens.

Farmers make use of only a small part of the land suitable for agriculture in Ethiopia. Improvements in farming equipment and methods, marketing, and transportation are needed to increase agricultural output.

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Manufacturing. The production of textiles ranks as Ethiopia's chief manufacturing activity. Other products include cement, processed foods, and shoes.

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International trade. Coffee, hides and skins, khat, livestock, and oilseeds rank among Ethiopia's chief exports. Imports include chemicals, crude petroleum, and machinery. Ethiopia's chief trading partners include Germany, Italy, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States.

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Transportation and communication. Most of Ethiopia's roads are unpaved. The country has one railroad. It helps connect Addis Ababa with the port city of Djibouti, in the country also called Djibouti. An international airport operates at Addis Ababa. Much of Ethiopia's foreign trade takes place through Djibouti. Ethiopia also uses the Eritrean ports of Assab and Massawa.

There are about 3 million radios and about 40,000 television sets in Ethiopia. Several daily newspapers are published in Amharic, English, and Tigrinya.

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History

Early days. Some of the oldest fossil fragments of human beings have been found in Ethiopia. They date from about 2 million years ago. By 500 B.C., two major groups, speakers of Semitic and Cushitic languages, inhabited the area. The plow was already the major agricultural tool by that time, and there is evidence that Ethiopians controlled water and used irrigation.

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The Aksum Kingdom was the first important state in what is now Ethiopia. It was well established by the A.D. 200's. Its capital was the city of Aksum. The Aksum Kingdom gained much wealth through trade with Arabia, Egypt, Greece, India, Persia, and Rome. The Aksumites exported gold, ivory, and spices. Aksum reached its height of power in the 300's under King Ezana. He made Christianity the official religion of Aksum. In the late 600's, Aksum's power fell sharply after Muslims gained control of Arabia, the Red Sea, and the coast of northern Africa. The Muslims, religious enemies of Christian Aksum, put an end to the kingdom's foreign trade.

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The Zagwe dynasty. In 1137, the Zagwe dynasty (series of rulers) rose to power on the Ethiopian Plateau. The Zagwe rulers had their capital at Roha—now called Lalibela. During the reign of the Zagwe emperors, 11 magnificent churches were carved out of solid rock at Roha. The churches still stand. In 1270, Yekuno Amlak overthrew the Zagwe dynasty. After the 1500's, the Ethiopian Empire broke up into a number of small kingdoms.

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Menelik II, who became emperor in 1889, reunified the old Ethiopian Empire by gaining control of many of the small kingdoms. In 1896, at the Battle of Adwa, Menelik defeated an Italian army that had occupied a part of Ethiopia called Eritrea. This victory earned him much respect and helped increase his power in Ethiopia.

Under Menelik, Ethiopia engaged in its own colonial expansion and nearly doubled its territory to the south and east. Menelik made Addis Ababa the capital of Ethiopia and began the construction of a railway that, when completed, linked Addis Ababa to Djibouti. Menelik also established the first modern schools and hospitals in Ethiopia.

In 1913, Lij Iyasu, Menelik's grandson, became emperor of Ethiopia. Rumored to have converted to Islam, Lij Iyasu was removed from power in 1916 by Christian Ethiopians with the help of the United Kingdom, France, and Italy. These countries opposed Lij Iyasu because he sided against them in World War I (1914-1918). Zawditu, Menelik's daughter, then became empress of Ethiopia. She ruled with the help of Ras Tafari, the son of Menelik's cousin. Tafari was named heir to the throne.

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Haile Selassie. Zawditu died in 1930. Tafari then became emperor and took the title Haile Selassie I. He continued Menelik's policy of modernizing Ethiopia.See Back in Time: Ethiopia (1930). In 1931, he gave the country its first written Constitution.

Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 in an attempt to expand its colonies in Africa. In 1936, the Italians conquered Addis Ababa, and Haile Selassie fled to the United Kingdom. See Back in Time: Ethiopia (1935). Italian rule was harsh. However, many fine roads were built under Italian rule, providing a long-term benefit to Ethiopia. In 1941, during World War II, British troops helped the Ethiopians drive the Italians out of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie then returned to the throne.

Eritrea, a mountainous area along the Red Sea, had been captured by Italy in the 1880's. In 1952, Ethiopia regained control of the area. In 1961, Eritrean and Ethiopian nationalists debated whether Eritrea should be an independent nation or a federation with Ethiopia. The Ethiopian government rejected the call for Eritrean independence and annexed the area. Civil war broke out in Eritrea in 1962.

The Ogaden region of southeastern Ethiopia also became a trouble spot in the 1960's. The government of neighboring Somalia claimed the region, which Menelik had conquered in the 1890's. Many Somali people had always lived there, and they revolted against Ethiopian rule. In the late 1970's, Ethiopia and Somalia fought over the Ogaden region.

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Military take-over. In the 1960's, many Ethiopians became dissatisfied with Haile Selassie's government. They demanded better living conditions for the poor and an end to government corruption. In 1972 and 1973, severe drought led to famine in the northeastern part of Ethiopia. Haile Selassie's critics claimed that the government ignored victims of the famine. In 1974, Ethiopian military leaders seized the government and removed Haile Selassie from power.

The military government adopted socialist policies and established close relations with the Soviet Union. In 1975, the government began large-scale land reform, breaking up the huge estates of the former nobility. The government claimed ownership of this land. But the military leaders also killed many of their Ethiopian opponents. In the late 1970's, people in the Tigray region in the north called for independence from the central government. See Back in Time: Ethiopia (1974); Ethiopia (1975).

Severe drought again led to famine in the mid-1980's, mainly in northern Ethiopia. About 1 million people died as a result of the famine.See Back in Time: Ethiopia (1984); Ethiopia (1985). In 1987, Ethiopia adopted a constitution that provided for a return to civilian government. A parliament was elected, but the country's military leaders continued to hold power. Lieutenant Colonel Mengistu Haile-Merriam became president.

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Recent developments. Ethiopia's government continued to face rebellions in the Eritrea and Tigray regions in the 1980's. In 1991, a rebel group consisting of Eritrean, Tigrayan, and other forces defeated President Mengistu and his army. In May 1991, rebels, chiefly from the province of Tigray, took control of the government.See Back in Time: Ethiopia (1991). The rebel groups agreed that Eritrea would become an independent nation. Eritrea gained independence in 1993. At that time, however, part of the border between the two countries was not clearly defined. Ethiopia and Eritrea fought a bloody war over this disputed area from May 1998 to June 2000, when the two sides signed a cease-fire agreement. They signed a formal peace treaty in December 2000. The treaty included a provision that established a commission to identify the border between the two countries. The commission issued a border ruling in 2002. However, Ethiopia objected to the ruling, and the border has not yet been marked. In 2005, an international court based in The Hague, the Netherlands, blamed Eritrea for starting the border war. In 2009, the court ruled that Eritrea owed Ethiopia $10 million for war damages.

In 1994, Ethiopia adopted a new constitution. In 1995, the country held its first multiparty parliamentary elections. The Ethiopian People's Democratic Revolutionary Front, which had dominated the government since 1991, won the 1995 elections as well as ones held in 2000. Party leader Meles Zenawi was chosen prime minister after both elections. Droughts again struck Ethiopia in the early 2000's, threatening millions of people with starvation.

In May 2005, elections were held, and Zenawi's party won. But opponents claimed the election was rigged, and protests erupted. In Addis Ababa, security forces opened fire, killing dozens of protesters. The opposition continued to dispute the results, with about 100 members of the Federal Parliamentary Assembly boycotting the Assembly. In November, more election protests turned violent. Over 190 people died in the May and November protests.

In December 2006, an Ethiopian court convicted former President Mengistu Haile-Merriam in absentia (while absent) of genocide. Mengistu has been living in Zimbabwe since 1991.

Also in December 2006, Ethiopian forces assisted Somali government forces in fighting back an Islamic militia that had gained control of southern Somalia. In January 2007, the Ethiopian forces began to withdraw from the country. In March, African Union (AU) peacekeeping forces began entering Somalia, but occasional fighting continued between Ethiopian and African Union troops, the Islamic militia, and clan factions. In January 2009, Ethiopian troops pulled out of Somalia, though fighting continued.

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