World Book Student

Back

 
Afghanistan, a nation in southwestern Asia, has towering mountains, scorching deserts, fertile valleys, and rolling plains. Afghanistan is surrounded by six other countries and so does not have a seacoast. The country is bordered by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan on the north, China on the far northeast, Pakistan on the east and south, and Iran on the west.

Afghanistan is one of the world's least developed countries. Most Afghan workers farm the land, and many use old-fashioned farming tools and methods. Some of the people are nomads—that is, people who move from place to place with their herds of sheep or goats. Kabul is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan.

Almost all the people of Afghanistan are Muslims. The religion of the Muslims, Islam, is the chief common link among them. The population of Afghanistan consists of about 20 ethnic groups, most of which are divided into several tribes. Most of the ethnic groups have distinct languages and cultures. The variety of ethnic groups has made it difficult for Afghanistan to develop into a unified, modern nation.

Afghanistan has a long and troubled history. In early days, Persians, Greeks, Mongols, and other peoples conquered the region. In modern times, Afghanistan has continued to suffer foreign interference. The Soviet Union sought to occupy Afghanistan in a war that lasted from 1979 to 1989.

In the 1990's, a conservative Islamic group called the Taliban came to power. The Taliban allowed international terrorist organizations to run training camps in Afghanistan. Following terrorist attacks against the United States in 2001, the United States and anti-Taliban forces within Afghanistan drove the Taliban from power. Afghans are in the process of establishing a new democratic government for their country.

Government

In the late 1990's, the Taliban controlled most of Afghanistan, including Kabul. The Taliban imposed their harsh interpretation of Islamic law on the country. However, few nations recognized the Taliban government as the legal government of Afghanistan.

The United States and its Afghan allies drove the Taliban from power in 2001. The United Nations then brought together the leaders of Afghanistan's main ethnic and regional groups, who organized a six-month temporary administration. Hamid Karzai, a prominent member of the Popalzai, an important tribe of the Pashtun ethnic group, became head of the temporary administration.

In June 2002, Afghan leaders held a loya jirga (grand council) to create a two-year transitional government. Loya jirgas are held at times of crisis or when major political or social changes need consideration. Loya jirgas attempt to include representatives of all of Afghanistan's many regional and ethnic groups. The 2002 loya jirga chose Karzai as president of the transitional government. Karzai selected Afghans from a variety of regions and ethnic groups to serve in his cabinet.

In December 2003, Afghan leaders gathered for another loya jirga. The following month, that loya jirga adopted a permanent constitution for Afghanistan. Under the Constitution, Afghanistan has a president and two vice presidents, elected by the people to five-year terms. The National Assembly consists of the Wolesi Jirga (House of the People) and the Meshrano Jirga (House of the Elders). The 249 members of the Wolesi Jirga are elected by the people to five-year terms. The 102 Meshrano Jirga members serve terms of varying lengths. One-third of these members are chosen by Afghanistan's 34 provincial councils, one-third by district councils, and one-third by the president. Men and women are guaranteed equal rights under the Constitution.

In October 2004, a presidential election was held under the new Constitution, and Karzai was elected president. Elections for the Wolesi Jirga and provincial councils took place in September 2005.

Afghan tribes and communities often hold smaller jirgas (councils) to decide matters of local importance. Local jirgas include all of a single community’s adult men or the leaders from several neighboring communities.

Print "Government" subsection



People

Ancestry. Most Afghans are a blend of early peoples who came to the country as invaders or settlers. These groups included Aryans, Persians, Arabs, Turkish-speaking people from central Asia, people from Mongolia, and people from the Xinjiang region of western China.

Print "Ancestry" subsection

Ethnic groups and languages. Afghanistan has about 20 ethnic groups, most of which have their own language and culture. Most ethnic groups consist of several tribes, many of which speak their own dialect of the ethnic language. Many Afghans feel greater loyalty to their ethnic group or tribe than to their country.

The largest ethnic groups are the Pashtuns (or Pakhtuns) and the Tajiks. Pashtuns and Pakhtuns are also spelled Pashtoons and Pakhtoons. The Pashtuns and Tajiks make up more than 60 percent of the population. Most Pashtuns live in the southeast, near the Pakistan border. Their language, Pashto or Pakhto, is one of Afghanistan's two official languages. Most Tajiks live in northeastern Afghanistan and speak Dari, the other official language. Dari is also known as Afghan Persian. Most of the country’s other ethnic groups speak Dari as either their first or second language.

Print "Ethnic groups and languages" subsection

Way of life. Most of Afghanistan's rural people live in homes made of sun-dried mud bricks. City dwellers live in homes and apartment buildings made of baked brick, concrete, or both. Most of the country's nomadic and seminomadic people live in tents made of goat hair.

Most Afghans wear traditional clothing. In winter, the people wear a heavy coat made of sheepskin, quilted fabric, or felt. Many rural men wear a turban, which may be tied in a certain way to indicate their ethnic group. Most Pashtun women wear a burqa, also called a chadri, which is a full-length hooded garment that covers the body from head to toe. The Pashtuns believe a woman must not be seen by any men outside of her family. Some rural women in Afghanistan cover their heads with a shawl.

Afghans serve flat loaves of whole-grain, sourdough bread at every meal. They also enjoy vegetables, yogurt, chicken, beef, mutton, and rice. Popular desserts include nuts and fruits. Tea is the favorite drink.

Print "Way of life" subsection

Women have traditionally played a secondary role in Afghan society. Their opportunities for education and careers have been limited, especially in rural areas. Men dominate women in many ways. For example, some Afghan tribes do not allow women to leave their homes without a male relative.

During the 1900’s, several Afghan governments attempted to give women more rights. In 1964, for example, a new constitution gave Afghan women equal status with men, and the social and economic position of some women improved. However, most women in rural areas never gained more rights.

In the 1990’s and early 2000’s, the Taliban greatly limited the freedom of women. For example, the Taliban required all women to cover themselves completely when in public. They also made it illegal for women to work outside their homes. Women who violated Taliban laws were punished severely.

After the Taliban were driven from power in 2001, many Afghan women hoped to reclaim their lost rights. Several women played significant roles in the national councils that created a transitional government and adopted a new constitution for the country. Also, the Constitution reserves several seats for women in the National Assembly.

Print "Women" subsection

Religion. About 99 percent of all Afghans are Muslims. Their religion strongly influences family and community relationships and most other aspects of life. Almost every Afghan village or nomadic group has a religious leader called a mullah. Mullahs lead prayer services and educate the young. They sometimes have great influence in their communities.

Print "Religion" subsection

Education. Most of Afghanistan's people 15 years of age or older cannot read and write. Many children cannot attend school because the country does not have enough schools or teachers. This lack of educational facilities is due largely to the upheaval caused by decades of war. Afghanistan has a few universities, including Kabul University and Nangarhar University in Jalalabad.

Print "Education" subsection

The arts. Because most of the people of Afghanistan cannot read and write, folklore, folk songs, and folk dances play an important part in Afghan life. They enable the people to pass their values and traditions on from one generation to the next. The attan (also spelled atan) is an energetic folk dance. Pashtuns dance the attan at weddings and other community celebrations.

Print "The arts" subsection

Recreation. Afghans enjoy sports and games such as soccer, volleyball, and basketball. Many men in Afghanistan like to hunt, and some of them use the famous Afghan hounds as hunting dogs. Men of the northern plains play a game called buzkashi. In the game, dozens of horsemen try to grab a headless calf and carry it across a goal.

Print "Recreation" subsection



The land and climate

Afghanistan is made up of three main land regions. These regions are, from north to south: (1) the Northern Plains, (2) the Central Highlands, and (3) the Southwestern Lowlands.

Print "The land and climate" subsection

The Northern Plains stretch across northern Afghanistan and consist of mountain plateaus and rolling hills. The soil is fertile in the Northern Plains but can be cultivated only where water is available. Large irrigation systems have been built along the Harirud, Helmand, Qonduz, and other rivers. Nomadic and seminomadic people raise sheep and goats on the vast grasslands of the north.

Temperatures in the Northern Plains of Afghanistan average about 38 °F (3 °C) in January and approximately 90 °F (32 °C) in July. The average annual precipitation in the region totals about 7 inches (18 centimeters).

Print "The Northern Plains" subsection

The Central Highlands cover about two-thirds of Afghanistan. They consist of the towering Hindu Kush mountain range and its branches. Snow-capped peaks rise about 25,000 feet (7,620 meters) along the Pakistani border in the east. The range gradually descends to a rolling plain in the southwest. Most Afghans live in the high, narrow valleys of the Hindu Kush.

The Central Highlands have an average temperature of about 25 °F (–4 °C) in January and about 75 °F (24 °C) in July. The region receives about 15 inches (38 centimeters) of precipitation yearly.

Print "The Central Highlands" subsection

The Southwestern Lowlands lie in southwestern Afghanistan and consist mainly of desert or semidesert land. The region is crossed by the Helmand River, which flows from the Hindu Kush to the Sistan Basin on the Iranian border. The basin has several slightly salty lakes and marshes. Barley, corn, fruits, and wheat are grown in the Helmand Valley.

Temperatures in the lowlands of Afghanistan average about 35 °F (2 °C) in January and about 85 °F (29 °C) in July. The average annual precipitation ranges from 2 to 9 inches (5 to 23 centimeters).

Print "The Southwestern Lowlands" subsection



Economy

Afghanistan’s economy once benefited from the country’s location along the Silk Road and other ancient trade routes. As these routes died out, the country became isolated. In the mid-1900’s, Afghan governments attempted to develop the country’s economy and to improve educational opportunities. But decades of war and internal struggles at the end of the 1900’s reversed most of these advances. A severe drought in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s further weakened Afghanistan’s economy. However, economic aid flowed into the country following the defeat of the Taliban in 2001.

Print "Economy" subsection

Agriculture. Even though little of Afghanistan’s land is suitable for farming, most Afghan workers earn their living in agriculture. Wheat is Afghanistan’s chief crop. Other crops include barley, corn, cotton, fruits, nuts, rice, and vegetables. Production is limited by a shortage of modern machinery, fertilizer, and water.

During the late 1900's, Afghanistan became one of the world's leading producers of opium, which is used to make the illegal drug heroin. Many Afghan farmers raised opium poppies because it was more profitable than growing wheat and other food crops. In 2000, the Taliban began enforcing a strict ban on poppy farming, but the practice resumed after the Taliban were driven from power in 2001. The governments that have ruled Afghanistan since then have also tried to stop farmers from growing opium poppies. However, Afghanistan still produces the vast majority of the world’s opium.

Afghanistan’s nomadic and seminomadic people raise most of the country's livestock. The chief livestock products are dairy items, mutton, wool, and animal hides. The skins of Karakul sheep, a fat-tailed sheep known for its silky pelt, are especially valuable (see Karakul).

Print "Agriculture" subsection

Mining. Afghanistan is rich in minerals. But, due to the country’s rugged terrain, frequent conflicts, and poor infrastructure, most of the deposits are largely undeveloped. In the 1960's, large deposits of natural gas were discovered in Afghanistan. Since then, the production of natural gas has become an important part of the nation's economy. Afghanistan also produces some coal, copper, gold, and salt. Some of the world's finest lapis lazuli, a valuable azure-blue stone, and other gemstones are mined in Afghanistan.

Print "Mining" subsection

Manufacturing. Afghanistan has little industry due to war damage and shortness of raw materials. Skilled craftworkers in their homes or small shops make carpets, leather goods, and other handicraft items. A few mills produce textiles, and small factories turn out such products as cement and processed foods.

Print "Manufacturing" subsection

International trade. Illegal opium accounts for much of Afghanistan’s exports. Afghanistan’s leading exports include animal skins, carpets, cotton, and fruits and nuts. The country’s leading imports include machinery, motor vehicles, petroleum products, and textiles. India, Pakistan, and the United States are Afghanistan’s main trading partners.

Print "International trade" subsection

Transportation and communication. Most of Afghanistan’s roads are unpaved. Decades of war heavily damaged the paved roads, making many of them unusable. The country has no railroads. Kabul has an international airport.

Afghanistan’s most famous transportation route is the Khyber Pass, which crosses the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. The pass cuts through the Safed Koh mountains, which are part of the Hindu Kush range. Conquerors, such as Alexander the Great of Macedonia, crossed the pass to invade South Asia. The Khyber Pass has been an important trade route for centuries. See Khyber Pass.

Several newspapers are published in Afghanistan. The country has dozens of radio stations. A government run television station broadcasts from Kabul.

Print "Transportation and communication" subsection



History

Prehistoric hunting people lived in what is now Afghanistan as early as 100,000 years ago. After many thousands of years, the people learned how to farm and to herd animals. Agricultural villages then developed. By about 4000 to 2000 B.C., a number of these villages had grown into small cities.

Print "History" subsection

Early invasions. About 1500 B.C., the Aryans, a central Asian people, invaded the region. They killed many of the area's inhabitants and intermarried with others. In the mid-500's B.C., Persians invaded northern Afghanistan, a region then called Bactria. The Persians ruled Bactria until about 330 B.C., when Greeks and Macedonians led by Alexander the Great conquered the region and much of the rest of Afghanistan.

About 246 B.C., the Bactrians revolted. They eventually conquered Bactria and other parts of Afghanistan. They formed a kingdom that lasted about 150 years, until the Kushans of central Asia seized Afghanistan. Sasanians from Persia invaded in the A.D. 200's, and White Huns from central Asia defeated the Kushans and Sasanians in the 400’s.

Print "Early invasions" subsection

The coming of Islam. Arab Muslim armies swept into parts of what is now Afghanistan during the late 600's. Three Muslim dynasties—the Tahirid, the Samanid, and the Saffarid—controlled much of the region during the 800's and 900’s. Under these dynasties, most local inhabitants became Muslims.

Turkic-speaking peoples from eastern Persia and central Asia ruled Afghanistan from about 900 to 1200. Afghanistan was conquered by Mongols led by Genghis Khan in the 1200's and led by Timur, also called Tamerlane, in the 1300's. Safavids from Persia and Mughals from India struggled for control of Afghanistan from the mid-1500's to the early 1700's.

Print "The coming of Islam" subsection

United Afghanistan. In 1747, Ahmad Khan came to power. He took the title shah (king) and adopted the name Durrani (pearl of the age). Ahmad Shah Durrani united the many Afghan tribes for the first time, marking the beginning of modern Afghanistan. He gained control of territory stretching far beyond the country’s current borders.

Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Timur Shah. Around 1775, Timur Shah moved the capital from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur Shah and his successors struggled to keep the Afghan tribes united and lost control of most of the territory beyond the current borders of Afghanistan.

In 1819, civil war broke out among rival tribes that wanted to rule the country. The war lasted until 1826, when Dost Muhammad Khan gained control. He took the title of amir (prince). Dost Muhammad’s descendants ruled the country for the next 150 years.

Print "United Afghanistan" subsection

The Anglo-Afghan wars. During the 1800's, the United Kingdom and Russia competed for control of Afghanistan. Russia wanted an outlet to the Indian Ocean and began to expand toward Afghanistan. The United Kingdom wanted to protect its empire in India, which was threatened by Russia's expansion. In 1839, British troops invaded Afghanistan to reduce Russia's influence in the region. The invasion set off the First Anglo-Afghan War, which lasted until the British withdrew in 1842. Russian influence near Afghanistan increased during the mid-1800's.

In 1878, the United Kingdom invaded the country again, starting the Second Anglo-Afghan War. The British found it difficult to establish control of Afghanistan. In 1880, Abdur Rahman Khan became amir. The British agreed to recognize his authority over the country's internal affairs. In return, Abdur Rahman accepted the United Kingdom’s control of Afghanistan's foreign relations. During his reign, Abdur Rahman worked to strengthen the national government and to reduce the power of tribal leaders. After he died in 1901, his policies were continued by his son Habibullah Khan.

Print "The Anglo-Afghan wars" subsection

Independence. Early in 1919, Habibullah Khan was assassinated. One of his sons, Amanullah Khan, then became amir and attacked British troops in India, beginning the Third Anglo-Afghan War. The United Kingdom had just finished fighting in World War I (1914-1918). It decided to end its involvement in Afghanistan rather than fight another war. In August 1919, Afghanistan became fully independent.

Amanullah began many reforms to modernize Afghanistan, rapidly sweeping away centuries-old traditions and customs. The nation's first constitution was adopted in 1923, and Amanullah changed his title from amir to shah in 1926. But tribal and religious leaders resisted the reform movement and forced Amanullah Shah to give up the throne in 1929.

Late in 1929, Muhammad Nadir Shah became king. In 1931, Afghanistan adopted a new constitution. Under the new Constitution, Nadir Shah began a program of gradual reform. But he was assassinated in 1933, before many of the reforms were begun. Muhammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's son, then became king.

Print "Independence" subsection

The mid-1900's. By the early 1950's, Afghanistan had developed good relations with the United States and many Western European nations. But the Afghans feared the intentions of the Soviet Union, their country's powerful Communist neighbor. In 1953, Muhammad Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law, took control of the government and made himself prime minister. Under Daoud, Afghanistan took no side in the Cold War, a period of hostility between Communist and non-Communist nations, and it received aid from both the United States and the Soviet Union.

Border disputes with Pakistan and other problems led to pressures that forced Daoud to resign in 1963. In 1964, under the leadership of Zahir Shah and Western-educated scholars and thinkers, Afghanistan adopted a constitution that provided for a democratic government. But many problems arose. Zahir Shah and the legislature could not agree on the role of political parties within the reform program. Parliament often deadlocked on key issues. In addition, the Afghan people had little experience with, or understanding of, democratic government. As a result, the new democratic system failed to bring about the progress that the framers of the Constitution had hoped for.

In 1973, Daoud led a military revolt that overthrew Zahir Shah. Afghanistan’s military, aided by Afghan Communists, took control of the government and established the Republic of Afghanistan with Daoud as president and prime minister.

Print "The mid-1900's" subsection

The Soviet invasion. In 1978, rival left-wing military leaders and civilians in Afghanistan staged another revolt, during which Daoud was killed. This group, which received much financial and military aid from the Soviet Union, took control of the government and established policies that had some features of Communism.

Many in Afghanistan opposed the new government. They believed the government's policies conflicted with teachings of Islam. In addition, they resented Soviet influence on the government. Large numbers of Afghan people joined in a rebellion against the government shortly after it came to power. Widespread fighting broke out between the rebels, who called themselves mujahideen (holy warriors), and government forces.

The Soviet Union became concerned that the rebels might defeat the Afghan government forces. In 1979 and 1980, the Soviet Union sent thousands of troops to join the fight against the rebels. The Soviets had far better equipment than their opponents. But the rebels, supplied by countries opposed to the Soviet Union, used guerrilla tactics to overcome the Soviet advantage. The Soviets and Afghan government forces bombed many villages. See Back in Time: Afghanistan (1979); Afghanistan (1980).

In 1988, the Soviet Union began withdrawing its troops from Afghanistan. The withdrawal was completed in February 1989. But the fighting between the mujahideen and government forces continued until 1992, when the rebels overthrew the government. See Back in Time: Afghanistan (1988); Afghanistan (1992).

Print "The Soviet invasion" subsection

Afghanistan under the Taliban. After 1992, Afghanistan had several governments made up of various combinations of mujahideen groups. Continued fighting among the groups prevented the establishment of a stable government. In the mid-1990's, a new group, a conservative Islamic organization known as the Taliban, rose to power. See Back in Time: Afghanistan (1995); Afghanistan (1996).

Pashtun religious students who had fled to Pakistan during the Soviet invasion started the Taliban movement. The Taliban were supported by Pakistan’s military and by militant Arab Islamic groups. By the late 1990’s, the Taliban gained control of most of Afghanistan. They established a Council of Ministers to rule the country.

The Taliban imposed their strict interpretation of Islam on the nation. For example, they banned television and most other modern forms of entertainment, and they established rules for dress and grooming. All women were forced to cover themselves completely when in public, and men were required to grow beards. The Taliban also prohibited girls from attending school and forbade women from working outside the home.

The Taliban destroyed many artifacts of the country’s heritage because they claimed they were anti-Islamic. For example, they demolished two ancient statues of Buddha carved into a mountainside near Bamian, Afghanistan. The Taliban also destroyed many works of art in the country’s museums.

Since the late 1970's, several million Afghans have fled to neighboring Pakistan and Iran to escape wars in Afghanistan. Thousands more Afghans have become refugees in their own country. Since 2002, about 4 ¹/2 million have returned to their homes. Years of drought in the late 1990's and early 2000’s left many Afghans in danger of starvation.

Print "Afghanistan under the Taliban" subsection

Recent developments. In 2001, members of a terrorist organization called al-Qa`ida attacked the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon Building near Washington, D.C. (see September 11 terrorist attacks. In addition, see Special Reports: Terrorism: America's New Enemy). The United States accused the Taliban of harboring and assisting al-Qa`ida, which was led by Saudi-born millionaire Osama bin Laden. The United States demanded that the Taliban arrest bin Laden and other Qa`ida leaders and shut down their training camps. The Taliban refused to do so, and the United States and its allies launched a military campaign against the Taliban.

The campaign included air strikes in support of the Northern Alliance and other Afghan rebel groups who opposed the Taliban. This support enabled the rebels to drive the Taliban from power in late 2001. Meanwhile, the United Nations brought together representatives of Afghanistan's leading groups to discuss the formation of a new national government. See also Back in Time: Afghanistan (2001).

An international peacekeeping force arrived in Kabul in late 2001 and early 2002. In the absence of a strong central government, however, warlords and tribal groups have continued to compete, often violently, for territory and power. Also, small groups of Taliban and Qa`ida forces have continued to battle U.S., Afghan, and allied troops.

In April 2002, the former king of Afghanistan, Muhammad Zahir Shah, returned to the country. He did not resume his role as king but attended a loya jirga (grand council) of Afghan leaders. In June, the loya jirga met in Kabul, established a two-year transitional government, and chose Hamid Karzai, a prominent member of the Popalzai tribe, as the country's transitional president. Zahir died in July 2007.

In December 2003 and January 2004, another loya jirga met in Kabul and adopted a new constitution for Afghanistan. In October 2004, a presidential election was held under the new Constitution, and Karzai was elected president. Parliamentary and provincial elections were held in September 2005.

In 2006, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) took over peacekeeping and security duties for Afghanistan from the U.S.-led alliance. Taliban and Qa`ida forces continue to fight NATO and the U.S.-led alliance.

Karzai remained in office after receiving the most votes in a presidential election held in August 2009. A United Nations-backed investigation found numerous voting irregularities, and a runoff election was scheduled. However, Karzai's opponent in the runoff withdrew his bid. Because Karzai had won the most votes in the first round, election officials declared that he had won the presidency.

Print "Recent developments" subsection

---